Running head: INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS

IN WHAT WAYS CAN INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS, BOTH RELATIONAL AND NONRELATIONAL BE ADEQUATLY SUPPORTED WHEN CARING FOR CHILDREN IN THE
BRITISH COLUMBIA CHILD WELFARE SYSTEM?

by
Amanda L. Dell
Bachelor of Social Work, The University of Northern British Columbia, 2010
MAJOR PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
in the
Department of Social Work
© Amanda Dell 2020
UNIVERSITY OF THE FRASER VALLEY
Spring 2020
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.

INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Approval
Name: Amanda L. Dell
Degree: MSW
Title: In What Ways Can Indigenous Care Providers, both Relational and Non-Relational
be Adequately Supported When Caring for Children in the British Columbia Child
Welfare System?
Examining Committee:

John Hogg
Graduate Program Committee Chair
Associate Professor, School of Social Work and Human Services
Darrell Fox PhD.
Senior Supervisor
Associate Professor, School of Social Work and Human Services
Sharon Forbes MSW
Second Reader/External Examiner
Sessional Instructor, School of Social Work and Human Services
University of the Fraser Valley

Date Defended/Approved:

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Acknowledgements
I would like to first acknowledge that I am writing this analysis on the unseeded territory of the
Nlaka’pamux people. The five bands that surround Merritt, BC are, Lower Nicola, Upper Nicola Band,
Nooaitch, Shakan, and Coldwater. It is my work with the local community of Merritt that has
encouraged me to advance my education to become a more culturally competent practitioner.
Appreciation and a heartfelt thank you to Dr. Darrell Fox, for his unending patience with my
learning throughout this experience, and for the encouragement to keep going as challenging as this
process was at times. I would also like to extend gratitude to my second reader Sharon Forbes for her
invaluable insight and clarity. Thank you to the University of the Fraser Valley for the experience of
obtaining a master’s degree. To my cohort, you are where I obtained much of my learning, as listening
to your personal stories was invaluable, and I feel honored to have been a part of the circle and learning
with you.
I am very blessed to have three intelligent, beautiful, and creative daughters, Kristiane,
Kassandra, and Cara. I am so thankful for your patience and support with the hours of, what seemed
unending, homework. I hope I have demonstrated to never to give up no matter how challenging
something is, as in the end you will reap the rewards of your hard work. Also, the importance for you
all to advance your education and to never stop learning, as education is knowledge, and knowledge is
freedom.
Appreciation is given to all who have assisted with reading and supporting the editing of my
paper, especially my daughter Kristi who assisted with some last-minute formatting that was
challenging. Last, but certainly not least a big thank you to my husband, Ryan, for the ongoing and
never-ending support and love through what was a very challenging time. Also, for giving me time and
space to vent my frustrations even when they were unrealistic.

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Acronyms and Definitions
Child, Family, and Community Services Act: CFCSA.
Caregivers: Relational caregivers.
Foster Parents: Non-relational caregivers.
In care placement: Children who are in temporary care of the province and placed with foster parents.
Out of care placement: Children who are in temporary care of the province and placed with
caregivers.
British Columbia: BC.
Delegated Aboriginal Agency: DAA.
Ministry of Children and Family Development: MCFD.
Resource Social Worker: RSW.
Guardianship Social Worker: GSW.
Complex Care Intervention: CCI.
Support Service Agreement: SSA
Adverse Childhood Experiences: ACEs

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Abstract
It is challenging in British Columbia to recruit and retain Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. The
over representation of Indigenous children in care is overwhelming, as is the under representation of
Indigenous caregivers. Issues associated with recruiting and retaining Indigenous caregivers are
numerous. In part due to historical trauma of colonization, along with other multiple systemic issues,
such as oppressive legislation and polices that resulted in poverty, homelessness and lack of
professional support. This paper will explore how social services can acquire and retain more
Indigenous caregivers. An analysis of the literature will be used to evaluate information and reflect an
in-depth review, which will be explored with both feminist and Indigenous theories. An anti-oppressive
and culturally competent framework was valuable for assessing social issues and systemic inequities of
potential Indigenous caregivers. This in turn provides professionals with a better understanding as how
to recruit and retain Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, by enhancing understanding of the
complexities that are impactful to Indigenous peoples.
Keywords: [Indigenous, Caregivers, Social Worker, Child Welfare, Foster Care]

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS

Table of Contents
Approval ............................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................iii
Acronyms and Definitions ....................................................................................................iv
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... v

I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
II. Thematic Literature Review ............................................................................................. 2
History......................................................................................................................................... 2
Statistics ......................................................................................................................................5
Poverty ........................................................................................................................................9
Impact of Colonialization ............................................................................................................ 13
Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACES).............................................................................. 15

III. Theoretical and Practice Frameworks............................................................................ 21
Indigenous Theory and Two-eyed Seeing Approach..................................................................... 23
Anti-Oppressive and Culturally Competent Framework. .............................................................. 24
Ethics ......................................................................................................................................... 26

IV. Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 27
Colonization ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
Poverty ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Professional Relationships and Support ......................................................................................................... 34

Complex Care Intervention (CCI) ................................................................................................. 36

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
V. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 39
References ................................................................................................................................. 41

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
I. Introduction
This paper will focus on understanding what relational and non-relational Indigenous caregivers
and foster parents require to care for children successfully. A relational caregiver is a family or
extended family member who provides the day to day care for a child, and she or he are named the
temporary guardian of the child in provincial court, and this is referred to as an out of care (OOC)
agreement (Child, Family, and Community Services Act [CFCSA], 1986). A non-relational care
provider is someone who is willing to temporarily care for a child in place of a parent and provide the
day to day care of the child, such as a foster parent. Foster parents ensure care for the child is
maintained, but do not hold legal guardianship of the child, whereas a relational caregiver, holds
temporary guardianship and can make the same guardianship decisions as a parent (CFCSA, 1986).
The history of Indigenous people in Canada will be explored as it is a component of why there
are not more Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. Equally important will be the analysis of the
research on systemic barriers for Indigenous caregivers, such as colonization, poverty, trauma and the
effect it has on Indigenous women, and care providers relationships with social workers. An in-depth
analysis of the literature was used for recommending more culturally competent supports and services
that aid in recruitment and retention efforts. This analysis will bring a better understanding of what
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents require to successfully care for Indigenous children. The focus
of this paper is Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, but it is important to note that due to a
disparage of information on the topic the literature analyzed stretched out to all caregivers and foster
parents.
The study will explore recruitment and retention efforts which child protection agencies need to
take when encouraging Indigenous people to apply to become caregivers, or foster parents for
Indigenous children in care. The information was analyzed using liberal and social feminist theories,
and an Indigenous two-eyed seeing approach, which is necessary due to feminist theories being western
social constructs (Baskin, 2016). Due to intergenerational trauma being a factor for Indigenous peoples,
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
an anti-oppressive and culturally competent framework was used to assess the literature. This
framework was beneficial as it is holistic and connects the behaviors and experiences of those
interacting within larger government systems (Baskin, 2016). Ultimately enabling social workers to
further see the complexities and intersectionality of the issues Indigenous caregivers and foster parents
face, due to colonialism, racism, and sexism.
The analysis of the literature was important to gain a better understanding of how to improve
the allocation of supports for Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, with a strong focus on
colonization, poverty, trauma, and relationships. When assessing the best way to support Indigenous
care providers it is important to understand colonization and assimilation of Indigenous peoples as a
substantial issue. The literature suggested that it is of great importance to analyze poverty at macro,
micro and mezzo levels (Ibrahim & Burczycka, 2016). Also, reflected in this analysis is how
Indigenous women have suffered generations of systemic abuse that has left deep scars, and this is of
great concern as women are the societal primary care providers of children in most cultures (Baskin,
2016).
The cycles of historical trauma, intergenerational trauma, and racism must stop, as to provide a
future for healthy communities. The relationship between Indigenous care providers and social workers
can be challenging, as there is an ongoing power imbalance within the relationship. The literature
indicated that social workers have an obligation and responsibility, to build alliance at personal and
formal levels with Indigenous care providers (Brown & Campbell, 2007). Listening to the care
provider’s needs, wants, and ideas is imperative for success.
II. Thematic Literature Review
History
Canada has a black mark on its history, due to the deplorable treatment of Indigenous peoples
(Ivo, 2017). Prior to European settler contact, Indigenous communities in BC were functional and
cohesive groups. Upon first contact the introduction of disease wiped out many Indigenous populations
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
and communities. Later Indigenous children were forced into attending residential schools and
communities were lost without their children (Carter, 2003). The results of mandatory residential
school attendance, and the loss of children in Indigenous communities increased the prevalence of
unhealthy coping mechanism such as, alcohol and drug use by many community members (Coyhis &
White, 2006).
Colonization created and atmosphere of disfunction within Indigenous communities and
increased domestic violence. In 1876, the Indian Act was introduced which perpetuated further racism
and stigmatization of Indigenous people (Carter, 2003). Later these policies developed into practices
and established organizations and policies that were based on western values and thus embedded
systemic racism and oppression into the practices of government and its officials such as, the reserve
classification, the 60’s scoop, and current child protection models of practice in BC. These continued
attempts at colonization destroyed children, families and their communities even further (Coyhis &
White, 2006).
Due to the Indian Act (1876), for those who occupied land with agricultural potential, there was
conflict, economic and environmental disruption, and policies were deployed to ensure the dispersal or
removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands. After being eradicated from their lands they were
given smalls spaces of earth to dwell on. These properties were small, crowded, and would soon
become areas of addiction, depression, and disfunction (Carter, 2003).
Indigenous communities were traditionally matrilineal, and the new patriarchal and westernized
processes dismantled Indigenous ways of empowering women and children. Prior to settler contact and
the Indian Act (1876) women were not only the leaders of their communities, but they also owned their
own land (Baskin, 2016). The matrilineal way of life empowered women and supported equality with
men. This new colonized patriarchal way life was supported by oppressive federal government
legislation, and policies which left Indigenous women exceedingly vulnerable to oppression,

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
marginalization, and abuse. It is important to note, that the dependency of Indigenous peoples on the
system effected men, but Indigenous women even more so, due to sexism (Fiske, 1996).
The introduction and enforcement of western ways, such as enfranchisement, was harmful to
women and their children, because they would be forced to leave their communities (Carter, 2003). If
an Indigenous woman married a non-Indigenous man, she would lose her status. To have Indian status
means you are Indigenous, and you are registered with the federal government of Canada, once lost
women were often was forced leave their community. Enfranchisement was enforced by a section of
the Indian Act (1876) (Baskin, 2016).
Due to the Indian Act (1876), and enfranchisement, Indigenous women were no longer as
valuable and respected members of their communities. Colonization destroyed the traditional
matrilineal way of life and created further oppression of women and children (Fiske, 1996). In 1985,
there was an amendment to the Indian Act (1876) that ceased enfranchisement, but the devastation and
destruction to Indigenous women and their communities was already immense. The Indian Act (1876)
disrespected and devalued Indigenous women in numerous ways. For example, if an Indigenous
woman’s husband passed away before her, then the land would go to their children and not to her, also
women could not vote in elections at federal, provincial, and community levels (Fiske, 1996).
Due to the enactment of historical genocide Indigenous communities are now in the process of
rebuilding the losses of land, cultures, languages and family connections (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005).
Indigenous women are still not at the forefront of their communities and until they are, women will be
underrepresented in important discussions of what is needed to move forward in healing their
communities. Women have valuable input, and it is important that they are heard and acknowledged,
not only within their communities, but through education and employment opportunities. It has been
stated by Indigenous researchers, that it will take seven generations before Indigenous communities
reach a point of health and wellness, due to the devastating and lasting effects of colonialism (Coyhis &
White, 2006).
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Furthermore, the definitions Indigenous, Aboriginal, First Nations, Metis, and Inuit was a
construct created by the Canadian government under the Indian Act legislation (Kovach, 2010). These
are generic names used to label many unique and diverse populations of people, which is in itself
oppressive and divides rather than strengthens Indigenous communities. In addressing these oppressive
concerns social workers should be referring to Indigenous people and communities by their correct
names they choose for themselves. This will assist in relationship building and decolonization (Baines,
2017). Due to colonialism and cultural assimilation in Canada, Indigenous populations had their unique
cultures stripped down to the core, and communities are rebuilding what was lost. Indigenous
communities are at the forefront of healing their own people and have taken on the challenging task of
rebuilding their cultural identities (Baskin, 2016).
The research literature recognizes that assimilation and colonization efforts were largely futile,
although there was certainly considerable damage done. Indigenous people have survived and will
continue to thrive with support and appreciation, as they are strong, interconnected, and ceremonial
cultures, whom are strengthened by community and not by separation (Baskin, 2016). They will regain
what was lost and rebuild themselves to be stronger and more empowered in the future (Coyhis &
White, 2006). This necessitates a powerful focus on healing Indigenous children, families, and
communities. In the realm of child welfare, healing will need to be focused on preventative supports
and services for families, and this includes recruitment and retention of Indigenous caregivers and
foster parents (Brown, Ivanova, Mehta, Skrodzki, & Rodgers, 2014).
Statistics
According to Statistics Canada (2016), BC is home to approximately 155,020 Indigenous
people. Indigenous children make up 45 percent of the Indigenous people in BC who are under 25
years of age. A significant 63 percent of children in foster care in BC are Indigenous, which is an
extraordinarily high number (Statistics Canada, 2016). There is an over representation of Indigenous
children in care, due to western ideals and standards of how children should be raised not aligning with
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Indigenous ways of knowing and being. Also, residential schools diminished the ability for generations
of Indigenous parents to raise their children, due to the trauma residential school survivors endured that
left them and their communities devastated by oppression and abuse. These experiences are some of the
underlying factors that led to the high rates of addiction, neglect, and domestic violence in Indigenous
communities (Baskin, 2016).
In 2011, in Canada 9.7 percent of Indigenous children were living in skip-generation families,
and 4.2 percent Indigenous children were living with other relatives (Statistics Canada, 2016). A skipgeneration family consists of grandparents and their grandchildren, but do not include the children’s
parents. 13.9 percent of Indigenous children who were living out of the family home were living with
family in Canada, and 12.6 percent of Indigenous children were cared for in foster placements
(Statistics Canada, 2016).
This means that 27.8 percent of children were being cared for by family or extended family, and
12.6 percent were in foster care. These numbers are positive and indicates that more is being done to
keep Indigenous children with their families, extended families, and communities. It is important for
the state to financially support family placements, as it is may assist in building strong Indigenous
children for the future. Research shows that Indigenous children have better outcomes when raised
within their own families and communities (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada [TRC],
2015).
There are approximately 4000 foster and group homes in BC, although no statistics could be
located on how many of those homes are run by Indigenous caregivers or foster parents (Federation of
Aboriginal Foster Parents, 2019). The difficulty in accessing information on the number of Indigenous
care providers in BC is another gap in service to Indigenous children who are in care. It is important for
this information to be readily available for research and a critical review. Children who are in care of
the government of BC are overseen under the legislation of the CFCSA (1986). The age range of
children, who are under the jurisdiction of this law are birth to nineteen years of age and many of these
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
children are Indigenous (CFCSA, 1986). The impacts of historical and present traumas inflicted on
Indigenous people highlights a more pronounced need that Indigenous children be supported differently
than other children in foster care.
In light of the historical legacy of colonization and assimilation, special attention needs to be
given to address Indigenous children’s unique heritage and cultural needs for them and their placements
(Saylor & Blackstock, 2005). It is important to have more Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, due
to the over representation of Indigenous children in the BC child welfare system. This will support
Indigenous children with maintaining connections to Indigenous cultures, languages, ceremonies, and
traditions (Brown, Gerritts, Ivanova, Mehta, & Skrodzki, 2012).
This is an exceptional time to be a social worker in Canada, because as a nation we are
commencing a reconciliation process with our Indigenous peoples, and to accomplish this Indigenous
peoples need to be in control of their own cultural identities. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(TRC) calls to action request placing Indigenous children with their communities and cultures so they
remain connected to their identities while in care, if they cannot safely remain in their homes (TRC,
2015).
The difference of numbers between Indigenous to non-Indigenous children in foster care in BC
is staggering. Four percent of Indigenous children ages fourteen and under are in care of the province,
and only 0.3 percent of non-Indigenous children are reported to be in care (Statistics Canada, 2015).
Indigenous children coming into care is more prevalent with children who live off reserve.
As mentioned previously, status and on and off reserve living is impacted by government
legislation, policy, and practices and has variable outcomes for Indigenous peoples. This may be
because the Ministry of Children and Family Development (MCFD) remove children more often the
Delegated Aboriginal Agencies (DAA). While both organization practice under the same legislation,
and the policy and practice guidelines are similar, the practice of DAA’s is seen as more culturally
sensitive, meaning the DAA is more likely to consider the complexities of colonialism, poverty and
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
trauma when working with Indigenous peoples (Aboriginal Operational and Practice Standards and
Indicators, 2009).
The statistics speak to the fact that Indigenous children live in complex family systems. It is
common for Indigenous children from the ages 0 to 4 live with one parent, and to also live with
grandparents in the same home. This is different than a skip-generation home, due to the parent living
in the home. Historically, these latter types of placements have not been financially supported by
MCFD or the DAA, due to legislation not allowing social workers to remove a child and place them in
the same home with the parent (Kelly-Scott & Arriagada, 2016).
This practice has created many issues with identity and disconnection between children,
parents, and caregivers. Recently there has been talk of changing that process and allowing, as long as
it is safe, parents to remain in the home when the children are placed with family or extended family
(Ministry of Children and Family Development [MCFD], 2019). This will not work for all
circumstances, but in cases of their being a lack of capacity due to intellectual delays, or one parent is
abusive, and the protecting parent leaving the offending parent, it would be beneficial for the child to
have the parent or parents in the home. The caregiver can also support the family in the home by
modeling positive parenting behaviors. In western cultures this practice could be taken as an issue,
however it is immensely supportive for a single parent, especially a mother, as women battle with
poverty more often than men. Therefore, to have the support of a healthy grandparent directly in the
home is advantageous (Brown et al., 2012).
Many Indigenous families favour living with several generations in one home, and this is not a
common western construct, so it not always respected (Baskin, 2016). It can be beneficial, as this
practice creates a familial support system for the young, the working age, and the elders (Ibrahim &
Burczycka, 2016). There appears to be more of an interconnected way of life for Indigenous
communities than western populations. As stated by Baskin (2016), ‘community’ overrides the needs
of the ‘individual’ in Indigenous communities, and both family and extended family support each other
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
for the greater good of the community and its members. Supporting this practice would be an asset to
child welfare agencies, as the more children who can remain in healthy Indigenous homes or
communities, the greater the potential for intergenerational healing (Blackstock, 2009). If grandparents,
aunts, and uncles can provide safety, then Indigenous children should be placed within their families
and communities more often, and that should be an ongoing goal for child welfare agencies (TRC,
2015). Social workers should concentrate on relationship building with Indigenous families, extended
families, and communities to enhance support for the children in care (Aboriginal Policy and Practice
Framework [APPF], 2013).
Poverty
It is of great importance to analyze poverty as a macro-level issue for Indigenous populations,
and this includes potential caregivers and foster parents in relation to recruitment and retention (Brown
et al., 2014). Recent Canadian research indicates that for children both on and off reserve, an
astounding 35 percent of Indigenous children live in single parent homes. Comparingly only 16.1
percent of non-Indigenous children live in single parent homes (Statistics Canada, 2016).
The literature suggests that single parent homes are more often run by women and have higher
levels of poverty and lower levels of education, and both elements increase the likelihood of child
welfare involvement (Saylor & Blackstock, 2005). This indicates that we need to do more to establish
resiliency in Indigenous communities, so they are more able to become cohesive and healthy family
units. Indigenous ways are inclusive of each other, and the sense of community is much higher (Baskin,
2016).
Poverty and its limitations are not going to offer people opportunities to become adequate
caregivers or foster parents, especially Indigenous women who often face racism and sexism as well
(Fiske, 1996). Women, and this obviously includes Indigenous women, are more often seen as the care
providers of children in single parent homes, and different approaches are required to break the cycles
of historical and intergenerational trauma, poverty, abuse, and addiction to better support these mothers
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
and their children (Baskin, 2016). Preventative and support programs are therefore of paramount
importance in addressing these issues (Ibrahim & Burczycka, 2016). Due to being impoverished
Indigenous peoples are less likely to apply and become approved caregivers under the current standards
and guidelines for potential caregivers. This reflects systemic oppression policy decisions that
potentially leave Indigenous peoples feeling they cannot afford to care for their own family never mind
other children who require support. Also, there is a deep distrust of government systems and officials
(Brown et al., 2012).
When Indigenous communities both on and off reserve are thriving financially, emotionally,
mentally, and physically they are naturally of better core health, and they will be better equipped to
support their families and children (Brown & Campbell, 2007). They are also more likely to want to
become caregivers and foster parents to support the children in their communities when they are
healthy and feeling supported. The literature identified that caregivers and foster parents need to feel
valued and that they are making a difference in the lives of children to continue providing care (Brown
& Campbell, 2007).
In 2019, caregivers and foster parents, for MCFD and the DAA, both received increases in their
monthly payments. The payment increase was to assist out of care options (OOCs) with being
financially brought up to closer to par with foster parents, but foster parents still receive more financial
support than OOC caregivers (Resource Work Policies, 2019). This financial support increase is
especially important to the OOC caregivers, because these types of care providers are providing the
same level of support, as foster parents, but earn less pay (Brown & Campbell, 2007).
Financial equality is required, as both sets of care providers support children who are struggling
with grief and loss, mental health, and attachment traumas. Before the increases OOC caregivers were
doing it for less pay because they are family, and it the parent’s responsibility first, then the family, and
then the state (CFCSA, 1986). Therefore, it is considered the families obligation to step in, but in order
to recruit more family placements this view is changing, and there are less barriers for families who
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
require financial support to take in children that are related to them directly or indirectly. This practice
has changed and is supported by the payment increases to family placements, and this will support
efforts to create less of a discrepancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents. This may not be enough to recruit and retain Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, and
more supports to heal trauma are needed and a focus on relationship building is important, before
recruitment can be completely successful (Brown, Skrodzki, Gerritts, Ivanova, & Mehta, 2013).
It would be more impactful if increased financial aid was allocated to build up Indigenous
caregivers and foster parents, to assist them with freedom from poverty. Due to the complex unequal
social economical standards that keep Indigenous populations marginalized, they require extra financial
assistance to increase the likelihood they will want to become caregivers or foster parents. The recent
increases to caregiver and foster parent payments are beneficial, but the rate of poverty is much greater
for Indigenous populations, and continuing to re-assess need, even yearly, may be beneficial in
recruiting and retaining caregivers and foster parents (Brown & Campbell, 2007).
To move forward and better strengthen Indigenous communities there will need to be continued
uncomfortableness between and Indigenous and western cultures. The uncomfortableness is caused by
western cultures having to learn and acknowledge the history of Indigenous people. Therefore, making
the necessary changes to negative attitudes and beliefs, about Indigenous people and their cultures.
Indigenous people are rightfully angry and frustrated as to how they have been treated, and so
it can be challenging reinforce change for an Indigenous person, as someone from western cultures, as
trust needs to be built into the relationships between Indigenous and western cultures, due to the
negative history (Baskin, 2016). Social workers who work with Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents have to be willing to be in those uncomfortable moments to be successful with building and
maintaining relationships (Brown, Anderson, & Rodgers, 2015).
Brown (2007), discusses the impact that colonialism and intergenerational trauma have had on
Indigenous populations and created poverty that is challenging to overcome. Historically, if it is known
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
to service agencies that Indigenous people are struggling with a lack of finances then they have been
subjected to decades of systemic racism. Issues of neglect and other forms of abuse due to the
experiences of poverty may result in children removed from their care (Brown et al., 2015). This
practice does not encourage Indigenous people to seek out financial support to assist them as parents or
care providers.
The legislation of the CFCSA (1986), also supports social workers with setting up agreements
with caregivers to provide more financial aid under what is referred to as a support services agreement
(SSA). This includes assisting families and caregivers with items they may need such as, winter tires or
a new washing machine. These are just a few examples that can be purchased to help families and
caregivers monetarily (CFCSA, 2019). This again is to provide extra funding to caregivers who may
not have the financial means to support another person in their home and to make it more feasible for
caregivers to take children into their homes, without fear of further financial hardship (Brown &
Campbell, 2007). Also, daycare top up can be applied for with what is called a 2044 agreement, and
this assists caregivers with not paying the additional cost that childcare subsidy does not pay (CFCSA,
2019).
Another barrier when recruiting Indigenous caregivers or foster parents is that they themselves
may have child protection or a criminal history. This is particularly true for Indigenous populations, due
to the over representation of this population in the child welfare and judicial systems (Baines, 2017).
When social workers are considering placement with family or extended family in Indigenous
communities this should not be an automatic rejection due to historical protection or criminal concerns
(Baskin, 2016).
It would be best practice if the safety assessment, of care providers who have protection or
criminal histories was made on a case by case basis with professionals, family and community involved
in making the decision together, and not one group making the decision for everyone involved (Roger,
Cummings, and Leschied, 2006). It is supportive and productive when government agencies and
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Indigenous communities work together when making decisions for Indigenous children and families
(APPF, 2013). Child protection agencies will need to take a measured look at the systemic issues and
the impact colonization has had on Indigenous people, when making decisions regarding placement of
children with caregivers who have child protection or criminal histories (Baskin, 2016).
Impact of Colonialization
Understanding the themes that emerged from the available literature regarding Indigenous
women, and what they endured historically and presently, is essential in supporting them as caregivers
and foster parents (Blackstock, 2009). In seeking to address the impacts of colonialism, sensitivity
needs to be given to their complex needs due to years of ongoing racism and sexism that have created
further barriers for Indigenous women. Increased education is paramount as this knowledge may
benefit social workers as to what efforts need to be created and followed when standing beside
Indigenous women and the children they care for (Baskin, 2016).
This in turn would hopefully lead to improved health and wellness for Indigenous women and
children and empower Indigenous women to stand strong together and keep their children in their care,
and to provide care for other children within their communities as well. Due to colonization and
cultural assimilation, Indigenous women as primary caregivers of children need different supports than
women of other minorities to be successful (Saylor & Blackstock, 2005). For, example financial
support needs to be greater, and education on parenting children with attachment disruptions would be
beneficial. Also, advocating for Indigenous women to get proper health care to increase their physical,
mental, and emotional wellbeing is another much needed support (Baskin, 2016).
Women are most often the primary caregivers in families, and better supports are needed to
ensure they are able to be independent caregivers or foster parents when wanted or necessary (Fiske,
1996). If we as social workers want to encourage more Indigenous women into becoming caregivers or
foster parents, then we need to bring attention to the lack of financial support for Indigenous women
(Brown et al., 2013). This can increase capacity to provide basic human needs to function in a healthy
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
way. It is important to note that it is understood that Indigenous homes have higher rates of poverty,
and this was reported for both women and men, but Indigenous women face a greater disparage of
income levels compared to their Indigenous male and non-Indigenous female counterparts (Fiske,
1996).
Federal, provincial, and community levels of government must work together with Indigenous
populations and create legislation to increase health and wellbeing back to their communities, and this
begins with empowering Indigenous women. When Indigenous women receive assistance with all
facets of health, and not just financial aid, but also more employment and educational opportunities,
plus access to support services for women’s mental wellness this will contribute to women reclaiming
their power back (Baines 2017). When Indigenous women are living in their power it is healing to
themselves and their communities. This is may be because it takes women and their communities back
to their historical roots of their traditional matrilineal ways of being, because before contact women
were respected leaders in their communities for their wisdom, values, and strength (Fiske, 1996).
Professionals, such as police, medical, and crown counsel are getting further involved in
understanding the history of Indigenous peoples. Learning and training will be beneficial at macro
levels, so that positive changes are more likely at all levels of government (Baines, 2017). Living
without violence, addictions, and mental health issues is key for children’s success as adults. This
centers around not being extensively traumatized due to historical and generational trauma (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2019).
Empowering Indigenous women may begin to heal a broken culture, and strengthen
communities, as it is strongly connected to life before contact. This way of life would benefit many
cultures, as it assists the child bearers with attaining security and safety for themselves and their
children. If a woman owns her housing and her land then she cannot be made to leave her house, land
or community (Fiske, 1996). Having explored some of the aspects of colonialism and how oppression

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
and discrimination continues to impact many Indigenous peoples and communities, I am now going to
examine the potential outcomes of the systemic issues mentioned above on individual functioning.
Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACES)
Statistics show if children face several adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) they are at higher
risk for poor health, addictions, higher rates of incarceration and repeating the pattern of dysfunction as
adults. Placement breakdowns are another issue for children, youth in care, especially if they are
identified as having a high number of adverse childhood experiences, which is in direct correlation with
the trauma they have suffered in care and out of care. Caregivers who are family or extended family
may have a high number of ACEs, especially Indigenous caregivers due to historical and
intergenerational traumas (Felitti et al., 1998).Care providers with a high number of ACEs also increase
the chance of placement breakdowns Social workers need to assess and support trauma reactions and
triggers in Indigenous caregivers and foster parents, due to the historical and intergenerational trauma.
ACEs speaks to the impact on the future physical and mental health of children who have faced
various forms of maltreatment in childhood. The ACEs assessed 17,000 adults who experienced
various trauma’s through childhood (Felitti et al., 1998). ACEs are events in a child’s environment that
damage their sense of physical and mental wellbeing (CDC, 2019).
ACEs can occur by living with a person who suffers with mental health issues, addictions,
exposure to violence, sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, and parental loss to incarceration or death
(Felitti et al., 1998). If a child has four or more ACEs, then they are at considerable risk for significant
health problems later in life (CDC, 2019). A high number of ACEs, seven or more, result in health
problems such as heart disease, diabetes, stroke, cancers and suicide (Felitti et al., 1998). ACEs also
increase the probably of incarceration, addictions, domestic violence, and significant mental wellness
issues. “Sixty percent of middle-class Americans are permanently scarred by ten adverse childhood
experiences or more, and then we need to consider American Indigenous people because they have the
highest incidences of childhood trauma” (Felitti et al., 1998, p.1).
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
ACEs indicates that those who are maltreated as children face multi-faceted heath issues for the
reminder of their lives (Felitti et al., 1998). Felitti completed a study that assessed issues that were
occurring for American Indians on reserves and found that ACEs were more prominent for individuals
on reserve than those in urban centers, but those who lived on reserve showed higher levels of abuse
and dysfunction, and therefore show and increase in ACEs (CDC, 2019).
Children in care who have a high number of ACE’s have greater risk of placement breakdowns,
this is in part due to caregivers and foster parents not being educated and trained on how to manage and
support behaviors in children who are in care who are struggling with ACE’s and attachment
disruptions (Felitti et al., 1998). Children who come into the care of the DAA or MCFD have endured
significant levels of maltreatment and exhibit challenging behaviors, and they often have a multitude of
psychological diagnosis, therefore they need a trauma informed approach to support the reduction of
challenging behaviors (Geddes, 2013).
Thus far, I have explored the structural impacts of colonisation on Indigenous peoples through a
historical account of how legislation and subsequence policy decision-making has marginalized many
Indigenous peoples and communities in Canada. I have also identified through the use of ACEs the
potential negative impacts of these systemic issues on Indigenous individuals generally, and Indigenous
women more specifically. I am now going to explore what the literature revealed about the role of
professionals and professional support in terms of addressing these broad and specific issues.
Professional Relationships and Support
The research literature identifies Indigenous caregivers and foster parents could benefit from
supportive social workers who have strong understanding of colonial history, social and cultural
supports, poverty, inadequate housing, high rates of addiction, family violence and child welfare
history (Brown et al., 2013). Resource social workers (RSW) are workers who directly support
recruitment and retention of caregivers and foster parents both for the DAA and MCFD. Their role is
supporting the caregiver’s contracts for the allocation of payments, education and training
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
opportunities, and support as needed with guidance on parenting children that may be a challenge
behaviorally (Brown et al., 2015).
The government considers the current policies that RSW’s follow to keep children in care safe
when they are placed in foster care, but the process is very intrusive for Indigenous caregivers (Brown
et al., 2015). The literature indicated Indigenous care providers find western ways intrusive and
dismissive of the impact’s colonialism has had intergenerationally on their people, for example frequent
home visits by social workers, and home studies (Baskin, 2016). Resource social workers should be
transparent and inform caregivers and foster parents that they should never consider looking after the
children in their home as a career, because the level of money coming into the home will always be
inconsistent, both increasing and decreasing every month, as children return to their parents or
communities (Resource Work Policies, 2019).
In order to recruit and retain caregivers and foster parents it must be beneficial economically, as
children and youth have costly financial needs. Care providers need income coming from outside the
home and inside the home (Brown et al., 2015). This means they need to have employment
opportunities and the government needs to provide additional supports for the children in the home.
This has limitations, as children should never be considered a source of income, but it is noted
throughout the literature that it can be a financial burden and this can limit the number of caregivers
and foster parents (Ivanova & Brown, 2010).
Another issue in the relationship between RSW’s, caregivers, and foster parents is that people
needed to be treated as experts of their cultures. For social workers, best practice is to not focus on
Indigenous trauma, but Indigenous strength. A strength-based approach will ensure better outcomes for
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. Too often social workers come across as all-knowing and
authoritative, and this is not the Indigenous way (Baskin, 2016).
As explained by Heron (2005), social worker’s need to be able to critically reflect on their
interactions with clients, and this includes RSW’s and their clients, who are specifically caregivers and
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
foster parents. Social workers should request support from Indigenous communities, as they know their
people and what the needs of their communities are, so communication is important. The role of a
social worker should be to support Indigenous communities and become allies to promote change in a
historically dysfunctional system that believes that only western practices are correct, and therefore,
creating room for more holistic and Indigenized ways (Brown & Campbell, 2007).
As with any kind of reconciliation efforts, this is, and will continue to be an uncomfortable
process. Indigenous communities do not want to work with social workers due to the history of social
work being complicit in oppressive practices, and therefore it is up to the workers to build trust with
those communities and members (APPF, 2013). Relationship building may be the best way to
encourage Indigenous peoples to become caregivers and foster parents, as everything is dependent on
building trust, and that may happen with meaningful relationship building practices, such as slowing
things down, not believing you are the expert, and listening first (APPF, 2013).
The need for Indigenous caregivers is well beyond what we currently have available for
Indigenous children in care (Brown et al., 2012). As stated by Brown, there are benefits to children
having stable foster placements rather than other forms of care, such as group homes. This is due to the
“greater likelihood of family reunification, better life outcomes and better mental health for children”
when placed in loving family care homes (Brown, 2007, p.539). Non-Indigenous family caregivers
have indicated their needs as better social supports, collaboration with the agency and workers, relief
care and relationship with the parents (Holen, Loock, Belenger, & Vanderfaeillie, 2017).
There is little research investigating barriers encountered by Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents, although there is a great deal of literature on foster parents in general (Brown et al., 2014). It is
important to restate that Indigenous children compromise the largest number of children in the child
welfare system (TRC, 2015) and Indigenous caregivers comprise the smallest group of foster parents
(Brown et al., 2014). Therefore, it may be beneficial to consider that changes are required enable better
outcomes for Indigenous children. Good relationships between resource social worker’s and caregivers
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
are key to the successful recruitment and retention of caregivers (Rodger et al., 2006). It is understood
that there are barriers concerning the recruitment of Indigenous caregivers as stated above, such as
poverty, trauma and other systemic barriers, and it is important to understand the barriers and find more
appropriate methods of supporting Indigenous care providers.
Another common theme at the interpersonal practice level was children’s behaviors and the
struggle to maintain placements for traumatized children with attachment injuries (Geddes, 2013). Care
providers require breaks when parenting children with challenging behaviors and extra supports.
Respite and relief are supports that the DAA and MCFD can offer care providers, and this gives the
child a safe place to spend time for up to ten days a month with another foster parent or approved
caregiver, allowing room for the care providers to rest and recharge (MCFD, 2019). Caregivers need to
live their lives as well and cannot be expected to parent twenty-four hours a day every day. Attention to
the social needs of Indigenous caregivers is paramount when trying to understand what it takes for
recruitment and retention.
There is still considerable racism in the helping profession (Baskin, 2016). If an Indigenous
person reaches out for help there is the assumption, by professionals such as, social workers that it is
the individual who is defective and in need of support. Exploration of multiple levels of systems that
are oppressing the individual need to be considered (Baines, 2017). It is my opinion, that the negative
stereotypes that some professionals hold is unacceptable. As suggested by the authors, at some point
we all need support and that is where a strong sense of community is paramount to supporting
Indigenous populations and a less judgemental manner (LeFrancois, Menzies, & Reaume, 2013).
It is important to have caregivers and foster parents who are willing to work with the children in
their care and their families. It is essential for children to maintain connection to family and extended
family to have a sense of identity, cultural beliefs and practices, as well as an understanding of who
their ancestors are, and how they are still connected to them as supports, especially when they are in
care. This act can support their sense of self identity and connection to their culture (Blackstock, 2009).
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Caregivers and foster parents provide support to children and their families while healing takes
place in the family unit. It has also been reported in research that caregivers and foster parents need to
know that social workers are doing everything they can to support the family to get their children back
(Brown et al., 2012). Indigenous caregivers and foster parents want to feel that everything is being
done by social workers to encourage parents with accessing resources to get the support they need to be
holistically healthy and move towards getting their children in back in their care (Brown et al., 2012).
The current legislation and practice of child protection in BC states that when a report is made
on a family, a child protection social worker must only remove the child when no other protective
measures are available for keeping the child safe in the home (CFCSA, 1986). Social workers must
exhaust all efforts to be creative and find measures and supports that will keep children safe in their
homes (Blackstock, 2009). The government should follow this legislation up by allocating preventative
measures and supports to enable children to remain in the care of their immediate families (United
Nations, 2018). To better support Indigenous children, it is highly recommended that understanding by
social workers of what their cultural needs are, as well as what is in their best interest. As advocates for
change, social workers need to support Indigenous care providers when caring for children in the
British Columbian child welfare system by questioning the system itself, and making concerns known
(Blackstock, 2009).
Children deserve caregivers and foster parents who share the same or similar cultural
foundations as them (TRC, 2015). Within agencies and practice it is understood that recruiting and
retaining Indigenous caregivers and foster parents is challenging to achieve due to past and present
issues of racism, poverty, and colonialism and the disruption to Indigenous cultures (Baskin, 2016).
This has directly impacted the service and support to Indigenous children in care, as being placed with
people from their own culture or similar culture is not often possible (Sherlock, 2017). A practice shift
will be important, as this will enable more children to remain with their extended families and
communities when they cannot safely stay with their immediate family in their homes. Knowledge and
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
education are key to effective positive change although the process has been slow, if not for Indigenous
populations speaking up to share what they need for their children, families, and community’s child
protection legislation would not be where we are today.
Social workers become involved in people’s lives in the most intimate ways and are
responsible for ensuring that families understand what is going on in a potentially traumatizing
situation. One approach to address this concern is effective relationship building and following
“restorative policies and practices that support and honour Aboriginal peoples’ cultural systems of
caring, wellness at the community, family and individual level” (APPF, 2013, p. 2). The APPF ensures
that social workers are meeting clients where they are at and the framework concentrates on
relationship building and learning about different cultures from the Indigenous communities
themselves, and not going into a situation with preconceived notions (APPF, 2013).
III. Theoretical and Practice Frameworks
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminism is described as a theory where women are empowered to have more choice,
both personally and publicly (Remlinger, 1994). Through liberal feminism women seek to maintain
equality through exploring actions, choices and the potential to have equal rights to men in all avenues,
especially legal and political rights (Baines, 2017). Liberal feminism “maintains that female
subordination is a result of unequal social and legal practices that deny women access to individual
rights” (Remlinger, 1994, p. 1).
Through liberal feminism women have more opportunity to change policies that limit
possibilities for women and create inequalities with men, and this ability can be used to influence rights
and should include child welfare policies and practices (Andrews, 2019). Liberal feminism
accomplishes this by ensuring women’s voices are heard through activism and writings of feminist
scholars, and this work supports opening up conversations about the differences between Indigenous
women and western women (Baskin, 2016). This can better support changes to child welfare policies
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
and practices that are needed for Indigenous women by understanding how current legislation does not
account for the cultural differences in parenting practices, and as a result more Indigenous children are
in care (Blackstock, 2009).
Liberal feminism can assist Indigenous women by identifying the complexities that they
experience differently due to colonization and the Indian Act (1876), and by gaining a deeper
understanding of how unequal treatment is created and supported at larger systemic level of
government through legislation, policy and procedures. Therefore, causes Indigenous women to be
further disparaged and vulnerable to domestic violence, poverty, and discrimination than their western
counterparts (Baskin, 2016). The work of liberal feminism is better supported by weaving several
feminist frameworks together such as liberal and social feminist theories, as socialist theory focuses on
the dependence of women on men, due to patriarchal forces at all levels (Remlinger, 2014).
Socialist feminism
In addition, a socialist feminist approach explains how “capitalism has separated the domestic
from the public work sphere based on the capital value of each domain” (Remlinger, 1994, p. 1). This
view understands how underappreciated women are in their roles as care providers. Capitalism is
valued as the cornerstone of globalization (Lightman and Lightman, 2017). Capitalism encourages
patriarchy and oppression through the exploitation of women through media, stereotypes, and roles as
caregivers, and further depresses the value of childcare, and work within the home (Remlinger, 1994).
Women who are working within the home face not only oppression from financial freedom, but women
can also be challenged with oppressive behavior from her partner due to the power imbalance
capitalism and patriarchy create within the home (Remlinger, 1994).
Socialist feminism can address concerns for all women, as social feminism brings to light that women
are often expected to be caregivers for children and take care of the home. This can lead to added
inequality, as caring for children and the home is often unpaid work, and not seen in society as valuable
like paid work outside the home (Remlinger, 2014). Indigenous women are further marginalized as
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
they are disparaged by lack of employment and educational opportunities outside of the home. Often
the inequity is greater for Indigenous women than western women who work within the home as they
are more likely to have less educational and work opportunities outside of the home (Baskin, 2016).
Culture plays a role in socialist feminism because culture is the heart of empowerment, and for
Indigenous populations to be empowered they need to support each other as a community supports, as
their understanding is they are powerful in numbers when spirituality connected together in ceremony
and ritual on the land (Baskin, 2016).
Indigenous Theory and Two-eyed Seeing Approach
An Indigenous lens is also necessary in the analysis of the literature for this paper, ensuring that
Indigenous views remain central to the outcomes, and addresses longstanding harms to Indigenous
peoples that have resulted from colonial academic and research practice. An important aspect that was
used in the analysis of the literature was a two-eyed seeing approach (Kovach, 2010). Western ways are
unavoidable, but there are models which support caregivers and foster parents with more cultural
competence, and one way is applying a two-eyed seeing approach. A two-eyed seeing approach
assesses the information or the problem presented with both eyes together in order to ensure that both
the western ways and the Indigenous ways are working together, and supportive of each other. A twoeyed seeing lens was used throughout this paper by analyzing the literature written by researchers who
focus on Indigenous social justice issues. Some of the researchers work utilized for this two-eyed
seeing approach were Brown (2007), Blackstock (2009), and Baskin (2016) who are all currently and
actively seeking knowledge and understanding as to how to better support Indigenous care providers
and Indigenous communities.
This method is paramount for conducting holistic and safe analysis of research, legislation,
policy, or issues at micro and mezzo levels (Kovach, 2010). One eye analyzes the information with a
western lens, and the other eye with an Indigenous lens. A two-eyed seeing approach is now the corner
stone to my practice, as this theory when applied to practice supports Indigenous, feminist, and western
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
ways of practice (Baskin, 2016). When faced with a dilemma in the field of child welfare, workers can
use a two-eyed seeing approach to support their practice in a culturally competent way, by gaining a
richer understanding of the particular Indigenous ways and cultures of the local Indigenous people they
serve (Baskin, 2016). This will support more Indigenous caregivers and foster parents with receiving
culturally competent support from their social worker, and not just support through a western lens.
This lens supports more cultural competence by looking at Indigenous ways as strengths, and
this can lead to further anti-oppressive practice which will support Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents having their needs met (Baskin, 2016). It may be beneficial for those who create and update
policy to be educated on the benefits of a two-eyed seeing lens, as there is potential to create less
oppressive policies for Indigenous peoples. As reflected in the research, a two-eyed seeing is trauma
informed as it builds on holistic and spiritual methods of knowing and understanding what colonization
has done to Indigenous peoples (Wilson, Pence, & Conradi, 2013).
Anti-Oppressive and Culturally Competent Framework.
When assessing the literature, an anti-oppressive and culturally competent framework was
chosen. Oppression may be a substantial contributing factor in the lack of Indigenous caregivers and
foster parents. Oppression is also seen by the over representation of Indigenous children in the foster
care system, due to the lasting effects of colonialism, intergenerational trauma, and poverty
(Blackstock, 2009). Western culture is still thought to be correct in its ideas, but by using an antioppressive and culturally competent framework, a shift in practice could be supported (Carter, 2003).
An anti-oppressive social worker ensures that clients are included in the descion making that
impacts their lives (Blackstock, 2009). It can be challenging for anti-oppressive social workers, as there
is an ongoing power imbalance within the client-helper relationship. The anti-oppressive social worker
understands that the sharing of power begins with relationship building to create positive partnerships
with Indigenous peoples, which will lead to more trust between the anti-oppressive social worker and
may lead to stronger alliances at personal and formal levels (Baines, 2017). Listening to caregivers and
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
foster parent’s needs, wants, and ideas about the children and their families is imperative for success, as
they are the twenty-four hour a day front line worker’s (Baskin, 2016).
A culturally competent worker practices critical reflexivity and seeks to identify the negative
assumptions and assessments he or she may have. This is supported by the anti-oppressive culturally
competent framework, because the social worker understands to complexities of the history and current
systemic implications for Indigenous peoples (Baines, 2017). Helpers who are able to decolonize where
biases stem from, and move passed them, will be more effective when supporting Indigenous families,
caregivers, and foster parents (Brown et al., 2014). It is imperative that social workers look at the larger
system that surrounds the individual or family that is needing support, because in order to identify what
is affecting the individual the worker needs to assess the bigger picture of how to break the cycles of
poverty, and inequity. Relationship building is essential to providing culturally competent support and
understanding what is truly going on for people on a larger systemic scale of oppression (Baskin,
2016).
In culturally safe practice it’s important to identify that “white ways” are not all encompassing
and the only way of being, and to consider how harmful those ways have been for Indigenous people
for decades and to move beyond and look at a more Indigenous model of support and practice (APPF,
2013). Additionally, when working with Indigenous care providers in a culturally safe way this practice
may create a culture that is more empowering and understanding (Baskin, 2016). This may be
accomplished by recognizing that Indigenous caregivers and foster parents’ have strong abilities to
understand his or her needs when facing adversity, which are important aspects of the strength’s
perspective to helping (Brown et al., 2014). Indigenous care providers do not need to be told what they
need to do to fit a white norm (Brown et al., 2013). What may be beneficial is to give Indigenous care
providers is for recognition by social workers that it is culturally safe practice to make space to
Indigenize their methods of fighting oppression and parent their way.

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
When looking through liberal and social feminist lenses it is important to recognize they are
both western constructs, although they have both moved all women ahead, they fail to recognize the
deep systemic issues that Indigenous women face, especially those who are not living in urban centers
(Remlinger, 1994). An Indigenous lens with a two-eyed seeing approach is paramount to supporting
Indigenous women as well as men who are facing systemic oppression, as knowledge is understood in
both the Indigenous and western ways. What may be seen as oppressive, due to actually being a
western construct through one eye, may be dismantled with an Indigenous perspective that is seen
through the other eye (Baskin, 2016). Therefore, providing some balance and equality to both
perspectives, because it is not looked and through just a western lens. A discussion regarding theories
and empowering practice is now complemented with a review of ethical considerations.
Ethics
The Aboriginal Healing Foundation Ethical Guidelines (2000) provides guidance to social
workers who are working with Indigenous caregivers and support the helper relationship by advocating
for a relationship that is healthy and maintains equality. Equality needs to be built into the relationship,
because it makes space for caregivers and foster parents to control the outcome of the working
relationship they have with social workers. Indigenous caregivers and foster parents can be better
supported by a circle and team approach (APPF, 2013).
The circle begins with introductions of self, and family, prayer, and food. A circle encourages
cultural competence as all people involved are made to feel welcome, heard, and respected. Whomever,
the family identifies as a community support system attends a team circle. The process is meant to
honour the people at the table, and is often used when supporting Indigenous care providers, as it
assists with opening lines of communication (APPF, 2013). In the literature reviewed for this paper the
research process was not indicated as consistently as it could be. Therefore, it leads one to wonder
about the rapport building, consultation with elders and community. This is an ethical implication of

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the current literature that seems to ignore how process in Indigenous communities is essential in
achieving ethical and socially just outcomes (Kovach, 2010).
Social justice is a creation of equality and equal opportunities in the social order of the world
(Lightman & Lightman, 2017). Research and researchers can promote social justice by being aware of
personal beliefs and biases and taking appropriate action in communities to support equality for all
individuals within their written work (Lightman & Lightman, 2017). The Canadian College of Social
Workers Act (CASW) (1970), describes social workers in relation to social justice as advocates for
marginalized populations, who assist with the equal distribution of support services. Also, they
understand the complexities of being vulnerable and treat those populations fairly, thus speaking up
when a situation is oppressive or unethical.
Child welfare social workers take an oath to uphold professional ethics and accountability and
obviously this is true of child protection social worker as a piece of their onboarding documentation
with the government (MCFD, 2019). Ethically there is a professional obligation to see that oppressive
practices stop and are counteracted by empowering practices, training, and advanced education
(Canadian College of Social Workers, 1970). This historically has not been upheld, by racism and
continued colonialism (Baines, 2017).
IV. Analysis
The aim of this research was to obtain a better understanding of what is needed to recruit and
retain Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. When applying the theoretical frameworks of liberal
and social feminist theories, two-eyed seeing, and an anti-oppressive practice and culturally competent
lens to the literature, I identified the following themes for analysis: Colonization, Poverty, and
Professional Relationships and Support. The themes all intersect with historical and intergenerational
trauma that needs to be healed. However, to assist the reader once I have applied the theories to the
literature, I will explore the structural effects of colonialization and the oppressive sub theme of

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poverty, both under separate headings. I will then explore implications for social work practice using
anti-oppressive and culturally competent practice lenses.
Application of Theory and Practice Frameworks
Liberal and social feminism were effective theories to use in the analysis of the information in
the literature to understand issues that Indigenous women have ongoing struggles with. These feminist
perspectives were important in establishing and exploring the issues that Indigenous women have been
subjected to in relation to colonialism and patriarchy, such as loss of their rights to land, and the loss of
being matrilineal leaders of their communities (Fiske, 1996). A feminist lens is highly relevant, because
women are the primary caregivers for children and compromise the majority of foster parents for
children in care (Brown et al., 2014).
These two empowering feminist views are important when looking at issues that affect
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents as liberal feminism protects liberty and focuses on women
having rights that are inclusive to all women (Andrews, 2019). Liberal feminism may support this, as
the they argue that all women are just as intellectually able as men to become educated and are able to
successfully be financially independent as men if given the same opportunity. This can also be true for
Indigenous women, as if they are not under the constraints of systemic and community racism and
colonialism and given opportunities supported by their cultures and ways of life, then they too are able
to thrive (Fiske, 1996). Liberal feminists believe in equality in opportunity for all women (Andrews,
2019).
Socialist feminism focuses on financially and culturally empowering women to be independent
from men and social constructs of patriarchal power. It argues that women, need special considerations
given them due to historical and present-day oppression and sexism (Remlinger, 1994). This can
support Indigenous women and care providers but expressing concern over the difference in
opportunities both with financial and excepting cultural practices and ceremonies that strengthen
Indigenous peoples and their connections to each other (Brown & Campbell, 2007). Therefore,
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empowering Indigenous peoples through the community level, by encouraging cultural understanding
at the larger systemic level (Baines, 2017).
It is well documented that women are affected by poverty more often than men, especially
women from a minority group, and who also have a history of trauma (Ibrahim & Burczycka, 2016).
Indigenous women are affected by many oppressive factors, such as colonization and poverty, which
oppresses and creates higher rates of abuse, and this poses detrimental impacts to their caregiving
abilities (Brown et al., 2013). It is challenging to find literature on this issue, due to research projects
historically having fewer women participants (Kirby, Greaves, & Reid, 2017). This is a limitation in the
literature, and this is something that needs to change, as women’s voices are important, and their
viewpoints are needed (Kovach, 2010).
By using a feminist lens women’s viewpoints and challenges are heard and discussed in a
strength-based and empowering manner (Baines, 2017). It is necessary to address social exclusion and
power inequities of Indigenous female caregivers, and a feminist standpoint allows room for that
analysis to be conducted when reviewing the literature (Kirby et al., 2017). It is important to listen to
Indigenous female caregivers as they are the primary caregivers and the matriarchs of their families.
Every caregiver is different, and a one size fits all approach will not be effective for recruiting and
retaining Indigenous caregivers and foster parents (Brown, 2007).
Using feminist practice approaches social workers may support Indigenous women and
therefore, be better supports to them by listening to Indigenous women’s different histories, cultures,
and ideas about their own healing and mental wellness (LeFrancois et al., 2013). As indicated in the
literature, there are multiple structural factors that impact people at an individual level and therefore if
an Indigenous woman asks for help, there should not be an assumption that it is her fault she needs
support (Baines, 2017). There is also great utility in using a feminist lens as it can be applied to male
caregivers and foster parents as well, especially as Indigenous men face such extreme systemic
marginalization (Baines, 2017). In the paragraphs below it will be explained more in detail as to how
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liberal, social, and a two-eyed seeing theoretical approaches can support Indigenous caregivers and
foster parents in relation to colonization and poverty.
Liberal feminism supports women with becoming systemically free of oppression and can
support Indigenous caregivers and foster parents by supporting a macro level of change, as in the
government policies that oppress Indigenous peoples. This is also supported by the macro levels of
government ensuring there is attainable educational and employment opportunities both inside and
outside of the home (Remlinger, 1994). Research indicates the more training and educational
opportunities Indigenous care providers have the more likely they will remain care providers (Brown,
Serbinski, Anderson, & Gerritts, 2016). The literature that supports this theory suggests, that current
Indigenous care providers both relational and non-relational need to have tools in their toolboxes for
how to connect with children who have been raised in families who have endured years of
intergenerational trauma due to colonization and assimilation practices (Baines, 2017).
Liberal feminism supports care provider with receiving more educational opportunities, by
educating the decision makers on the importance of reconciliation with a two-eyed seeing approach to
educated others at a systemic level that, Indigenous care providers may not need the western approach
to education on attachment and healing trauma (Brown et al., 2016). Indigenous care providers already
know how to connect with their children but need understanding and room to practice what culturally
connects them (Baskin, 2016). Therefore, by using both a liberal feminist lens and a two-eyed seeing
approach this may assist with increased understanding of what the Indigenous ways of education on
attachment may look like, such as connecting with children through cultural activities such as
ceremony, which is known to bring the individual together at the community level to create not just
individual healing, but cultural healing (Baskin, 2016)
Socialist feminism supports financial freedom for women, as a method to empower and change
women’s lives so they can become independent of men and the state (Remlinger, 1994). As indicated in
the literature, more financial support can assist with the recruitment and retainment of Indigenous
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
caregivers as the more money in the hands of the individual can create a feeling that one can support,
not only themselves and their immediate family, but having other children in their care, such as nieces,
nephews, grandchildren, or may children in care (Baines, 2017). When oppressive systems are changed
at a macro systemic level to be more inclusive and understanding to policy and procedures that
continue to colonize and impoverish Indigenous peoples, that may empower the individual to want to
support others, because they financially can do so without causing undue hardship to them or their
immediate families, as the care provider is able to care for successfully financially themselves and
their families (Brown et al., 2014).
In a culturally competent and anti-oppressive lens it is essential to use a two-eyed seeing
approach to practice with Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. This enables good work to be done
with Indigenous communities. As it is a trauma informed lens, and therefore it looks at colonization and
poverty outside of the individual, and instead looks at the larger systems of oppression that cause the
cycle of colonization and poverty to continue. These approaches all signify that oppression and
inequality are at the root of the problem that Indigenous people are facing. It is important to look at
how work is conducted through several frameworks, which complement each other when advocating
against the complexities of colonization and poverty.
Colonization
The negative impacts of colonization on Indigenous peoples has been immense resulting in
numerous intersectional limitations being experienced by many Indigenous peoples, and their
communities. As stated in the literature, these reflect the intergenerational legacy of the Indian Act
(1876), which established the systemic oppression of Indigenous peoples in Canada. The legislation
was intended to assimilate Indigenous peoples into western society and eradicate their culture, this was
somewhat achieved through the reserve classification, residential schools, the 60’s scoop, and current
child protection models of practice in BC.

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
While some aspects of the Indian Act have been amended it continues to marginalize
Indigenous peoples today. The social issues that has most implication for my study is how legislation
and resulting in polices and practices have led to poverty that have impoverished many Indigenous
peoples. For example, Indigenous children being forced into attending residential schools and
communities that were devastated by the loss of their children (Carter, 2003). The results of residential
school subsequently increased the prevalence of unhealthy coping mechanisms such as, alcohol and
drugs, which increased violence and health related issues (Coyhis & White, 2006).
Colonization amplified disfunction within Indigenous communities and increased domestic
violence and addictions in communities (Coyhis & White, 2006). The Indian Act perpetuated further
racism and stigmatization of Indigenous peoples (Carter, 2003). This legislation developed into policies
and practices that were based on western values, which increased racism and oppression into the
practices of government and the public body towards Indigenous peoples. These continued attempts of
assimilation further impoverished children, families and their communities (Coyhis & White, 2006).
Poverty
Professionals may provide better support to Indigenous care providers by looking at the
information and different situations they are in through a trauma lens. This may be accomplished by
focusing on the systems around the individual and supporting the individual in a strength-based
supportive manner (Wilson et al., 2013). By not blaming the individual and putting pressure on the
oppressive systems that need to change in order to elevate Indigenous peoples out of systemically
created poverty, imposed on them due to colonization and continued racism (Baines, 2017).
Poverty affects women more prominently than men, and Indigenous women are even further
affected, due to their gender and indigeneity (Baines, 2017). Colonization has taken opportunity for
financial, educational, and spiritual opportunities for Indigenous peoples. Providing support, to lift a
culture out of poverty, does not just include financial support, but educational and employment
opportunities as well, and these opportunities need to be provided in a culturally competent way (TRC,
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
2015). This will in turn make it more advantageous and beneficial for potential Indigenous caregivers
and foster parents who are impoverished, as it provides better physical and emotional health outcomes
for Indigenous peoples (Brown et al., 2015).
All levels of government and support services would benefit from having a better understanding
of the importance of assessing necessary improvements to the allocation of supports for Indigenous
caregivers and foster parents, with a strong focus on poverty and its limiting effects along with
enhancing supportive professional relationships. When assessing the best way to support Indigenous
care providers it is important to understand poverty as being a substantial issue (Brown & Campbell,
2007). Many Indigenous women require more support than what they are currently getting from social
work agencies to empower them and create a new generation of healthy care providers. (Saylor &
Blackstock, 2005). Anti-oppressive and feminist social work practice can assist with starting to address
the issues relating to colonialism such as poverty, sexism, and racism, by seeking to bring equality to
Indigenous women by ensuring they have a voice in their communities and in policy and practice
decision-making (Baines, 2017).
Implications for social work practice
As highlighted above legislation, policy and practice implications often intersect, which creates
further complexities in addressing them. There are many social justice issues that affect Indigenous
peoples, and are troublesome such as, being dispositioned from their lands, a lack of available and
culturally competent resources, and an inability to exercise their rights over their needs and interests
(UN, 2018). To promote holistic healing, Indigenous peoples may benefit from making their own
decisions on their needs (Baskin, 2016). To achieve this, it is important for social workers to
understand their core beliefs and stereotypes and keep looking inward as to what these are, and not be
avoidant and pretend they do not exist. Critical reflexivity is essential to provide culturally competent
supports when engaging with Indigenous caregivers and foster parents who have suffered harm by
people in the helping field. This is essential practice when attempting to recruit and retain Indigenous
33

INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
caregivers and foster parents (Brown & Campbell, 2007). In the next section I am going to explore the
role of social workers and how they can potentially achieve anti-oppressive and culturally competent
practices to address the above concerns.
Professional Relationships and Support
As informed by the literature, the need for Indigenous caregivers is well beyond what we
currently have available for Indigenous children in care (Brown et al., 2014). As stated by Brown, there
are generally benefits to children having stable foster placements rather than other forms of care, such
as group homes. This is due to the “greater likelihood of family reunification, better life outcomes and
better mental health for children” when placed in loving family care homes (Brown, 2007, p.539). NonIndigenous family caregivers have indicated their needs as being better social supports, collaboration
with the agency and workers, relief care and relationship with the parents (Holen et al., 2017).
There appears to be a correlation with successful long-term placements when caregivers and
foster parent feel supported by the RSW (Brown et al., 2015). Social workers need to give evidence to
support caregivers and foster parents with praise that they are doing a good job raising the children in
their care, and this was made evident by the workers who gave both verbal and written feedback to the
care providers that the child was succeeding in their care (Ivanova & Brown, 2010). Tangible evidence
given to the care providers was satisfactory performance at school, positive peer relationships, and a
mutually supportive relationship between the child’s family, caregivers and foster parents. Foster
parents need to feel they are a positive experience in the child life and his or her family, and this is
important for maintaining long term placements (Brown & Campbell, 2007).
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents indicate the need to have social workers who are there
to support them, and who are practicing from a good place. Relationships of trust between Indigenous
caregivers and foster parents are built by consistency and reciprocity. Principles of authentic
engagement are important and engage early and often. Always, listen first and talk later, and allow for
silences. It is supportive to bring something to the home, such as food, and close the establish ongoing
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
connections by being genuine, empathetic, and human (Blackstock, 2009). If social welfare agencies
want to recruit and retain Indigenous caregivers, then a comprehensive understanding of the history of
colonialism and understanding of intergenerational trauma is paramount.
However, due to the colonized history of child welfare (Carter, 2003), many Indigenous
communities are resistant and fearful of working with social workers. Social workers need to
concentrate on relationship building to encourage healthy relationships within Indigenous communities,
and this is supported by acknowledging that Indigenous communities know what is best for their
children (Brown & Campbell, 2007). Encouraging Indigenous peoples to become caregivers and foster
parents is supported by building relationships and can be accomplished though effective listening,
communication, and trust building (APPF, 2013).
Social workers must critically reflect on their personal core beliefs, biases, and stereotypes to
avoid any negative thought process being carried into meetings with Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents, as this may create practice implications that further supports colonization and racist practices
(Fiske, 1996). To be self-reflective and to not allow “claims to innocence” to cloud thoughts and skill
sets, as it is culturally competent practice to be real with oneself, and this leads to anti-oppressive
practice (Heron, 2005, p. 350). When in a helping role, social workers would benefit themselves and
the people they serve by being honest and accountable for personal biases. It is only then social
workers begin calling themselves anti-oppressive practitioner’s (Baines, 2017).
It is important for social workers to understand their core beliefs and stereotypes and to practice
critical reflexivity, and apply a two-eyed seeing lens, as to what his or her beliefs and bias are, and to
not be avoidant and pretend they do not exist to be a culturally competent worker. Social workers must
be as supportive as possible, while understanding the ongoing effects of continued colonialism and
racism, which perpetuates poverty and trauma (Baskin, 2016). Providing cultural safety by engaging
with Indigenous caregivers and foster parents who have suffered harm by people in the helping field is
essential to recruiting and retaining caregivers and foster parents (Brown & Campbell, 2007).
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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
I have discussed how practitioners can assist in recruiting and supporting Indigenous caregivers
and foster parents within social just practices. Workers can also recommend ethical and culturally
competent anti-oppressive practices when working and support child and youth who will be in the care
of Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. One example of this is Complex Care Intervention
approach.
Complex Care Intervention (CCI)
A practice method that is a necessity to incorporate into child protection social work are the
principles of Complex Care Intervention (CCI) (Geddes, 2013), as strong component of CCI is a
trauma informed practice. When using at trauma informed practice, and CCI, approach the social
worker creates a safe space with the child’s care team, by being transparent with the process, and
making room for the care team to share without judgement and criticism. It is hoped that this process
will lead to a trust based and collaborative working relationship (Geddes, 2013). CCI is specific
process that supports stabilizing children in care, who demonstrate significant challenges with behavior
and those behaviors threatens their placements to repeatedly breakdown (Brown et al., 2014). It is my
opinion that CCI should be used in all agencies and all child protection team leaders should be trained
as CCI coaches and have at least two trained CCI coaches on their teams.
The approach of CCI is holistic, trauma informed and culturally competent. A reason why CCI
is so effective is because it is a trauma informed practice approach. A trauma informed approach is
important to supporting the healing of the historical and present factors that affect Indigenous
caregivers and foster parents, because it promotes cultural humility, empowerment, and transparency
(Wilson et al., 2013). For Indigenous populations to heal from the intergenerational trauma cultural
traditional healing practices must be included in intervention and treatment plans (Wilson et al., 2013).
CCI makes room for this because the care teams are the experts, so it is inclusive and supports cultural
competency.

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
A CCI coach supports the child’s care team with how to approach significant behaviors, or
adverse childhood experiences, in a cohesive attachment focused manner. The CCI coach ensures there
is structure to the meetings, and that everyone is heard and feels supported in the discussion. CCI care
teams consist of two coaches who have been trained in CCI, caregivers, foster parents, GSW, RSW,
counselors, teachers, or anyone who is directly working with the child. The coaches provide the care
team with education, encouragement, and intervention strategies to support connection and foster
attachment with the child. The process is strength based and opens dialogue up in a good way (Geddes,
2013).
CCI is a good approach to use with Indigenous peoples, as it is focused on attachment and the
importance of human connections, and the intervention strategies are attachment based. The meetings
are held in a circle that is inclusive and supportive to all views. Indigenous peoples have had
tremendous breakdown in their attachments between parent and child, due to residential school and its
aftereffects, namely trauma (Coyhis & White, 2006). The CCI approach to practice addresses the past
and why it is causing issues in the present. This is beneficial to Indigenous people, because the past is
part of the issues that surround their communities today (Cordell, 2013). CCI is a circle approach that
highlights the way to help children is to have communication between the care team that surrounds the
child.
The strengths of using a team based CCI approach are a strong focus on communication and no
one team member can decide without it being a table discussion for the entire team (Geddes, 2013).
Therefore, it is an inclusive method of support and team members feel heard. With teams who are
coming from different experiences with the child, such as schools, caregivers, foster parents, social
workers, and counselors there can be a disconnect, animosity, and a lack of understanding of each other
and what the individual members of the team’s goal are in relations with the child (Geddes, 2013). The
CCI care team may consist of family members, but it is not always recommended. For example, it is
not considered beneficial to have family involved who are not able to be accountable for their part in
37

INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
the reason the child is in care (Geddes, 2013). This is a limitation as it is important for family to be
included and this process could branch out to be more inclusive of family, but it would require a
slightly different process. The approach takes the focus from the child’s behavior, and instead focuses
on the support surrounding the care team and their accountability to the child and the process of
effectively supporting the child. The child’s trauma history, current issues and functioning are
discussed and what intervention strategies the team envisions will be do able for the care team (Geddes,
2013).
There are limitations with this process when working with Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents. There can be reluctance for members of care teams regularly participate in the meetings,
especially Indigenous caregivers and foster parents who are fearful of the system, who do not feel
respected, and who do not feel they are listened to or heard (Brown & Campbell, 2007). It is my
thought that the meetings would be made more culturally competent if there was food present, and a
honouring ceremony to add an extra layer of comfort and respect for the care providers and the rest of
the team.
If social workers can engage in open dialogue between Indigenous caregivers, foster parents,
and service providers, then social workers may be able to assist with improving quality of life for
Indigenous children and youth (Brown et al., 2012). If CCI coaches cannot relationship build
successfully with Indigenous members of the care team in a culturally competent and sensitive manner
the process of providing support to the team will be ineffective. With the CCI approach meetings
consist of an agenda which is prepared ahead of time and the team has had the chance to add their
input. The monthly meeting begins and ends with the team sharing their experiences with what is
working well for the child at home, school, etc. There is no talk about what has not been working at
this time, as the focus on skill building and intervention strategies that will support the child. Another
topic of conversation within the care team focuses on what intervention strategies are working well for
the caregivers and foster parents, and which need tweaking to be a more effective and supportive
38

INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
(Geddes, 2013). To support Indigenous caregivers and foster parents it is important to recognize a large
number of Indigenous people are in various stages of healing. We need to implement more support for
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents educationally and attachment focused, such as trauma
informed support services and CCI attachment-based programs that are built within child protection
models.
V. Conclusion
The intention of this paper was to bring attention to the ongoing issue of the lack and need for
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents in BC. This topic is of tremendous interest to me
professionally, as I see it as a gap in service for Indigenous children when they are placed outside of
their families, extended families, and communities. Children have far better outcomes when connected
to culture and family connections so Indigenous children would benefit from Indigenous caregivers and
foster parents.
Reconciliation efforts will continue to be an uncomfortable process. For example, the process of
establishing new legislation and policy, and ensuring that there is appropriate practical and financial
support in place is challenge at all levels. Therefore, it may be helpful to have more research conducted
on how colonialism and racism effects Indigenous care providers, and how these practice implications
negatively affect family, caregivers, foster parents and community’s ability to care for their children. To
better support Indigenous care providers, social workers may benefit from looking at practice
implications such as colonization, poverty, trauma, and relationships with a two-eyed seeing and
feminist approach, as this may assist with practicing in an anti-oppressive and trauma informed style.
Looking at the issues of poverty, trauma, and relationships through a liberal and social feminist
view may support recruiting and retaining female Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. Even
though these are western constructs paired with a culturally competent and anti-oppressive framework
they may add further change for care providers who are impoverished and marginalized. Bringing

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INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
Indigenous care providers up to a living wage may assist with recruitment and retention of caregivers
and foster parents (Saylor & Blackstock, 2005).
Moving forward the assessed literature indicates that more supports needed to recruit and retain
Indigenous caregivers and foster parents. Such as better financial support to the caregiver and foster
parents, which needs to be looked at on an individual level as some Indigenous caregivers and foster
parents will require more financial support than other care providers, due to continued systemic
oppression (Brown et al., 2014). When social workers are relationship building with Indigenous
peoples and communities it may be of benefit to meet with the elders of the community first, as they
will provide another layer of information about their people. Elders are their community’s knowledge
keepers, listeners, educators, and spiritual leaders. Indigenous caregivers, and foster parents expressed
that they need to feel heard and supported an elder who listens, and not just a social worker, CCI coach,
or support worker to give them feedback from their mandates and western models of caring for children
(Ivanova & Brown, 2010).
Indigenous communities desire to have control of what their communities need to keep children
safe, and I am hopeful with that more Indigenous caregivers and foster parents will come forward to
support Indigenous children and families. Social workers may benefit Indigenous caregivers by
decreasing practice implications by being anti-oppressive and culturally competent workers. Also, to
make room for Indigenous communities to take the lead on what their children, families, caregivers,
and foster parents need for success. To empower Indigenous communities, they need to be the experts
of their lives, and it is then we may see less Indigenous children in care.

40

INDIGENOUS CARE PROVIDERS AND FOSTER PARENTS
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